Baird, Christopher S. "Magnetism." AccessScience. Dec. 2019. (Sept. 5, 2022) https://doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.398800

Paramagnetism: A paramagnetic material is weakly attracted to a magnetic field. Aluminum, oxygen, iron oxide (FeO), and titanium are paramagnetic.

Optically induced magnetism works when an electric current passes through a magnetic layer and the electric current becomes spin-polarized. The spin-polarized current will exert a spin-transfer torque (STT) on the magnetization. This phenomenon can also be generated inside a non-magnetic metal due to the spin–orbit coupling (SOC) Spin–orbit interaction, and the corresponding torque (spin–orbit torque (SOT)). I.e., not only u A {\displaystyle u_{A}} and u B {\displaystyle u_{B}} must be substituted by α and β, respectively (the first entity means "spin up", the second one "spin down"), but also the sign + by the − sign, and finally r i by the discrete values s i (=± 1⁄ 2); thereby we have α ( + 1 / 2 ) = β ( − 1 / 2 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \alpha (+1/2)=\beta (-1/2)=1} and α ( − 1 / 2 ) = β ( + 1 / 2 ) = 0 {\displaystyle \alpha (-1/2)=\beta (+1/2)=0} . The " singlet state", i.e. the − sign, means: the spins are antiparallel, i.e. for the solid we have antiferromagnetism, and for two-atomic molecules one has diamagnetism. The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a symmetric molecular orbital, i.e. with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an antisymmetric spin state (i.e. with the − sign). In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency that they try to avoid each other by this repulsion, would lead to an antisymmetric orbital function (i.e. with the − sign) of these two particles, and complementary to a symmetric spin function (i.e. with the + sign, one of the so-called " triplet functions"). Thus, now the spins would be parallel ( ferromagnetism in a solid, paramagnetism in two-atomic gases). Earth's magnetic field, known as the magnetosphere, protects it from the solar wind. According to Wired magazine, some people even implant tiny neodymium magnets in their fingers, allowing them to detect electromagnetic fields. In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, M is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when H is zero (see Remanence). Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones (or magnetite) which are naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. The word magnet was adopted in Middle English from Latin magnetum " lodestone", ultimately from Greek μαγνῆτις [λίθος] ( magnētis [lithos]) [1] meaning "[stone] from Magnesia", [2] a place in Anatolia where lodestones were found (today Manisa in modern-day Turkey). Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Anatolia, India, and China around 2500 years ago. [3] [4] [5] The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia. [6]

a b c d e f Lucas, Jacques; Lucas, Pierre; Le Mercier, Thierry; etal. (2014). Rare Earths: Science, Technology, Production and Use. Elsevier. pp.224–225. ISBN 978-0-444-62744-5. The Colorado Department of State (CDOS) is Colorado's central filing office for corporations, partnerships, limited liability companies and business trusts.The same situations that create magnetic fields—charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles—are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-269951-1. Campbell, Peter (1994). Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application. Cambridge University Press. p.217. Bibcode: 1996pmma.book.....C. ISBN 978-0-521-24996-6.

H + M ) = μ 0 ( 1 + χ ) H = μ r μ 0 H = μ H . {\displaystyle \mu _{0}(\mathbf {H} +\mathbf {M} )\ =\ \mu _{0}(1+\chi )\mathbf {H} \ =\ \mu _{r}\mu _{0}\mathbf {H} \ =\ \mu \mathbf {H} .} All substances exhibit some type of magnetism. Magnetic materials are classified according to their bulk susceptibility. [1] Ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of magnetism encountered in everyday life, but there are actually several types of magnetism. Paramagnetic substances, such as aluminium and oxygen, are weakly attracted to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances, such as copper and carbon, are weakly repelled; while antiferromagnetic materials, such as chromium, have a more complex relationship with a magnetic field. [ vague] The force of a magnet on paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and antiferromagnetic materials is usually too weak to be felt and can be detected only by laboratory instruments, so in everyday life, these substances are often described as non-magnetic.Buschow, K.H.J. (1998) Permanent-Magnet Materials and their Applications. Trans Tech Publications Ltd. Switzerland. ISBN 0-87849-796-X.

Sturgeon, W. (1825). "Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus". Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, & Commerce. 43: 37–52. cited in Miller, T.J.E (2001). Electronic Control of Switched Reluctance Machines. Newnes. p.7. ISBN 978-0-7506-5073-1. The relevance of demagnetization to domain rotation arises from the fact that the demagnetizing field may be looked upon as a store of magnetic energy. Like all natural systems, the magnet, in the absence of constraints, will try to maintain its magnetization in a direction such as to minimize stored energy; i.e., to make the demagnetizing field as small as possible. To rotate the magnetization away from this minimum-energy position requires work to be done to provide the increase in energy stored in the increased demagnetizing field. Thus, if an attempt is made to rotate the magnetization of a domain away from its natural minimum-energy position, the rotation can be said to be hindered in the sense that work must be done by an applied field to promote the rotation against the demagnetizing forces. This phenomenon is often called shape anisotropy because it arises from the domain’s geometry which may, in turn, be determined by the overall shape of the specimen. Swain, Frank (March 29, 2018). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets". The Sciencepunk Blog. Seed Media Group LLC . Retrieved 2009-06-28. Neodymium Magnets (NdFeb, NIB, Neo), also known as “rare earth magnets,” are composed of neodymium, iron, boron, and transition metals. Despite their small size, these magnets are incredibly powerful and are the strongest magnetic material available. Neodymium magnets should be handled with care to avoid injury and can be used in a variety of environments and magnetic assemblies. Boysen, Earl; Muir, Nancy C. (2011). Nanotechnology For Dummies, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons. p.167. ISBN 978-1-118-13688-1.An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of "soft" ferromagnetic material such as mild steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization ∇· M inside a magnet is treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism. Phy6.org. "The Great Magnet, the Earth." Nov. 29, 2004. (Sept. 5, 2022) http://www.phy6.org/earthmag/dmglist.htm Diamagnetism appears in all materials and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates. [14] Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows: Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-269951-1. OCLC 162129430.